WHAT IS ACTIVE CITIZENSHIP

Active Citizenship is about taking part. It needs to be encouraged, practised and informed. Providing opportunities
for young people to develop the necessary skills presents schools and other organisations working with young
people with both a difficult challenge and a unique opportunity, which can have an impact on the whole school
ethos, as well as the wider community.

National Curriculum Skills

In terms of the Citizenship Curriculum for England the key skills that must be developed are as follows:

At key stage 3 students should:

(a) use their imagination to consider other people's experiences and be able to think about, express and explain
     views that are not their own
(b) negotiate, decide and take part responsibly in both school and community-based activities
(c) reflect on the process of participating.

At key stage 4, the first skill changes slightly, stating that students should:

(a) use their imagination to consider other people's experiences and be able to think about, express, explain
     and critically evaluate views that are not their own.

DEVELOPING ACTIVE CITIZENSHIP SKILLS IN THE CLASSROOM

Teaching Strategies

Group Work

What is group work?

Group work means learning situations where pupils work together on tasks rather than working individually or learning from the teacher.

Group work can involve pairs, or smaller or larger groups. The kind of tasks can range from simple, visual sorting and matching, role-play and dramatic dialogues, to more conceptual, open-ended discussion activities.

What are the benefits of group work?

Pupils:

• interact with peers, without the teacher dominating group decisions
• are allowed greater flexibility to use imaginative techniques like drama
• experience learning through active participation in tasks.

The school:

• has better motivated classes who are keen to learn
• has potential spin-over into other subjects as pupil enthusiasm can inspire other teachers to experiment with group work.

How does group work contribute to Citizenship education?

• Links to the National Curriculum:
  Developing skills of enquiry and communication - 2c Developing skills of participation and responsible action - 3a, 3b

How can we introduce group work in our school?

• Teachers who naturally practise group work, for example in drama departments, can help to demonstrate a range of methods to other teachers, for example during INSET days. It may be useful here to share what everyone means by group work, because all teachers probably employ this technique sometimes, as in the use of worksheets. The point of a sharing session would be to explore together different kinds of interactive learning (e.g. talking, deciding, building consensus) and how they can be applied to meet the learning styles of different subject areas.
• Often, visitors to school can have this role as well, for example through running an effective simulation activity or drama workshop with one group, who then tell their peers about it, building demand for more visitors to come in and work interactively with pupils.

Evaluations

What are evaluations?

Evaluations are ways of assessing the progress pupils are making with their learning. As well as more formal teacher-directed methods like tests, marks and reports, there are methods that actively involve the student in managing their own learning experience, such as peer evaluation and self evaluation.

What are the benefits of peer and self evaluation?

Peer evaluation refers to techniques where pupils are encouraged and helped to comment on each other's progress rather than leaving all this to the teacher. Techniques can include sharing questionnaire responses in pairs or small groups in the classroom or having whole class discussions to affirm how well everyone thinks everyone else is doing on specific tasks. Clearly peer evaluation can be facilitated by teachers and should not be seen to become too negative in terms of what pupils say about each other's progress - although constructive personal criticism is a key Citizenship skill that young people must gain to aid their social relations with each other and inform how they see their own roles in society.

Self evaluation enables pupils to take on their own assessment of how well they are developing their learning. As with peer evaluation, this can involve a range of techniques facilitated by teachers, including questionnaires and one-to-one discussions with the teacher or another supportive adult. Self evaluation is an active skill because it helps pupils to develop a positive habit of self-awareness and self-criticism - of being able to look at their own work with some objectivity in trying to judge, openly and honestly, how they personally think they are doing, without the influence of peers or parents.

How do peer and self evaluation contribute to Citizenship education?

• Links to the National Curriculum: Developing skills of participation and responsible action -3c
• QCA has recommended that schools use portfolios as a way of recording progress (e.g. participation in class debates, written assignments, out of school activities).

How can we introduce evaluations in our school?

• Broadening the range of evaluation techniques may have to start at the top of school hierarchies, as they are traditionally responsible for measuring pupil progress, ultimately against targets set by the government and examination bodies.
• However, new thinking and practice about peer and self evaluations can come up through pupil request or teacher example and pressure. If one Citizenship class can demonstrate the value of using friendly questionnaires or positive progress sharing sessions, these should ripple out to influence other teachers and classes.

Useful organisations

Development Education Association

This is an umbrella body for organisations working to improve global education in the United Kingdom, both local and national. These organisations have developed wide expertise in group work methods and have published many handbooks for teachers.

DEVELOPING ACTIVE CITIZENSHIP SKILLS IN THE SCHOOL

Peer Education

What is peer education?

Peer education involves pupils in teaching other pupils. This can be through peer tutoring, one-off sessions,
theatre presentations, conferences or a series of sessions.

What are the benefits of peer education?

• Pupils gain in confidence and behaviour skills through working co-operatively with each other.
• Learning is seen as a shared activity, not one totally controlled by teachers or school authorities.
• Tutors benefit because pupils take on more responsibility for their own learning.

How does peer education contribute to Citizenship education?

• Peer education is active.
• Links to the National Curriculum:
  Developing skills of participation and responsible action - 3a Knowledge and understanding - 1i
  (Part of learning about "the world as a global community" is understanding how people can
  learn from each other across differences of time, space, language or culture. Doing this at a
  micro-scale in one classroom exemplifies the global principle that everyone can teach and
  everyone can learn).

How can we introduce peer education in our school?

Peer education programmes vary greatly. However, there are some key requirements for all programmes:

• Clear aims and objectives.
• Effective training for peer educators.
• Skilled supporting teachers.

Class level

• Pairing up less able and more able students together can help to focus students' learning.
• Students can become specialists in different subject areas.

Between Classes

• A class can run a workshop or lesson for another class on a set subject.

Between schools

• Transition from primary to secondary school.
• Students can assist new students.
• Students can run lessons in primary school.

Peer Mediation

What is peer mediation?

Peer mediation involves pupil mediators acting as an impartial third party to help their peers resolve conflicts,
such as name-calling, bullying, arguing and fighting. The pupil mediators facilitate communication, empathy
and conflict resolution.

The pupil mediators work with their peers to find 'win-win' solutions, where both parties feel that the
decision is fair.

What are the benefits of peer mediation?

Pupils

• Learning to resolve conflicts.
• Developing new skills including: Speaking; listening; negotiating; teamwork; critical thinking;
  emotional intelligence and problem-solving.
• Recognising that they are taken seriously, resulting in increased confidence, self-esteem and aspirations.
• Feeling safe.
• Improved relationships.

The school

• Improved behaviour and attendance.
• More teaching and pastoral time, as teachers' time is less often taken up with resolving disputes.
• Improved relationships.
• A more inclusive, calm and caring environment.
• Enhanced curriculum provision, including Personal, Social and Health Education (PSHE) and Citizenship.
• Contributes to meeting the National Healthy School Scheme (NHSS).
• The creation of listening and democratic schools.

How does peer mediation contribute to Citizenship education?

• Links to the National Curriculum:
  Developing skills of enquiry and communication -2a, 2b, 2c
  Developing skills of participation and responsible action - 3a, 3b, 3c
  Knowledge and understanding - 1a, 1b, 1g
  

How can we introduce peer mediation in our school?

The support of the whole school community will be important. Peer mediation programmes need an adult team
with overall responsibility but can be pupil-led on a daily basis. The school will need to provide a space at lunch
and break times.

It is important that the peer mediators receive adequate training. If there is not a teacher who feels confident
with doing this, there are local and national organisations which can provide training. It may also be useful to
visit local schools with existing programmes.

There need to be agreed procedures and principles for peer mediation. The basic procedure may be as simple as:
Each pupil telling their side of the story; the peer mediators verifying the facts and perceptions; the peer mediators
and pupils discussing possible solutions. Principles will include: Respectful listening; being non-judgemental; an understanding of confidentiality; impartiality (peer mediators must reveal conflicts of interest and maybe refer some
cases to other peer mediators); an understanding of limits and when it is time to refer the case to a teacher; and
all parties must enter the process voluntarily.

Useful organisations

Consultations

What are consultations?

School-wide consultations involve procedures for asking everyone in a school community what their views are
on particular issues. This is similar in spirit to elected bodies that choose to hold referenda as a means of
consulting people about decisions they have to make on their behalf. The difference in a school situation is that
not all members of the body are equal in status and decision-making power. Governors hold ultimate responsibility
for decisions, which is delegated to the head and senior management team on a day-to-day basis. Teachers
hold responsibility for the welfare and learning of their pupils. Pupils have traditionally held less power to influence
decisions that concern them, although school councils are becoming more effective in giving a voice to pupil concerns.

What are the benefits of consultations?

• A school that practises wide consultation is clearly one that is providing a good model for Active Citizenship.
• If a senior management team wishing to change an area of school life (like uniform or playground regulations)
  sets out initially to consult with teachers and pupils who will be most affected by the changes, then it is are
  seeing all members of the school community as having roles to play as citizens (albeit roles with different
  levels of status).

How do consultations contribute to Citizenship education?

• Links to the National Curriculum:
  Developing skills of enquiry and communication -2a, 2b, 2c
  Developing skills of participation and responsible action - 3b
  Knowledge and understanding - 1a, 1c

How can we introduce consultations in our school?

Whole school improvements in participation may well have to start at the top, with the senior management team,
following the established way that most schools make decisions. However, as young citizen members, pupils also
have the right to try and initiate improvements. Pupils, with or without the support of teachers, may be able to
demonstrate good practice in active participation, for example in going to senior managers and asking for their
views to be taken into account. This route can be made much easier where there is an effective school council
in operation.

School Councils

What are school councils?

School councils are elected bodies of pupils that make decisions about issues affecting the whole school.
They are normally complemented by class councils and linked to wider school decision-making forums,
such as governor meetings.

What are the benefits of school councils?

The draft DfES guidance, Working together: Giving children and young people a say states:
"It is argued that effective class/school councils have a positive impact on the general atmosphere in the school,
pupils' behaviour, commitment to learning, and exclusions ¹ . Such benefits come about if the council is not symbolic
or manipulated ² ."

Other benefits might include:

Pupils

• Developing new skills: Debating; speaking; listening; representing the views of others; negotiating;
  group decision-making.
• Having an opportunity to voice their opinions and have those opinions taken into account on any issues
  relevant to them (Article 12 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child).
• Becoming responsible.
• Understanding how decisions are made and how to contribute to them.
• Recognising they are taken seriously, resulting in increased self-confidence and self-esteem.
• Improved relationships.
• Learning about democracy.
• Receiving better education and facilities that are more responsive to their needs.
• Becoming more motivated to get involved in their wider community.

The school

• proved academic achievement.
• Improved behaviour and attendance.
• A more inclusive and caring environment.
• Teacher time freed up for teaching and pastoral care
• Enhanced curriculum provision, including Personal, Social and Health Education (PSHE) and Citizenship.
• Contributes to meeting the National Healthy School Scheme (NHSS).
• Schools which are more democratic for the whole school community.

¹ Davies, L (October 1998) School Councils and Pupil Exclusions
² Baginsky, M and Hannam, D (1999) School Councils: The View of Students and Teachers: © NSPCC

How do school councils contribute to Citizenship education?

• Links to the National Curriculum:
  Developing skills of enquiry and communication - 2a, 2b, 2c
  Developing skills of participation and responsible action - 3a, 3b, 3c
  Knowledge and understanding - 1a, 1c, 1d, 1e, 1f, 1g
  

How can we introduce a school council in our school?

It will help to get outside training and support, either locally or nationally, in setting up a school council.

School councils are most effective when there is support across the school community (including governors
and parents) and when staff and pupils are trained. There should be a link teacher who will need to take an
active role initially but then draw back. Structures should be in place to ensure that the school council is
sustainable if the link teacher leaves. Non-teaching staff should also be involved, for example, dinner staff
may be invited to attend some meetings. There needs to be time set aside for regular meetings.

Classes elect representatives and elections (modelling national elections) can also be held for the chair,
vice-chair, secretary and treasurer. Meetings are normally held in a formal format with an agenda etc.

Class councils enable everyone to be involved and provide a forum in which pupils can tell their class
representative what they would like brought up in the next school council meeting and for the representative
to feed back after meetings. They are also an important forum in which pupils can look at issues that can be
resolved on a class level.

The issues addressed will depend on the pupils but it is important that everyone is clear about what can be
changed in the school and what the boundaries are.

Sub-committees on specific topics are a way of involving more pupils.

Useful organisations

DEVELOPING ACTIVE CITIZENSHIP SKILLS OUTSIDE THE SCHOOL

Outings

What are outings?

Outings refer to all organised activities beyond the school gates, whether an educational visit to a museum
or historic site or planned involvement in community action.

What are the benefits of outings?

• Outings extend the possible range of learning experiences that schools can offer pupils. By taking pupils
  out of classroom environments to places where they can see and touch and do, learning is enhanced
  - as are social skills for Citizenship through meeting and talking with community members and educators
  other than the familiar teachers.
• Groups of pupils planning Active Citizenship assignments in the community can actually carry these out if
  they can be allowed to work outside their schools. Examples of this could include assignments for
  secondary pupils to work in feeder primary schools (e.g. on a topic about play), or to find out about
  provisions for the very young or the very old in the community through a regular series of visits to
  local institutions.
• Outings also give scope for national and international levels of Citizenship learning. Beyond tasks for writing
  letters to Members of Parliament, schools can organise visits to the House of Commons to experience
  national democracy at work, or arrange to lobby parliamentary bodies over specific issues. School trips to
  other countries provide at the very least possibilities to meet and share ideas with young people with
  a range of cultures and languages. More Citizenship-focused international visits are also possible, for
  example where young people from different countries work together on a common task like building a school
  in anAfrican community.

How do outings contribute to Citizenship education?

• There are many opportunities to link outings to the Citizenship Curriculum, depending on the context of
  the outing, e.g. a community project will have greater links than a trip to a museum.
• Outings are very good ways of acquiring knowledge and understanding, for example, visiting battlefield
  sites to learn more about effects of war.
• Outings develop skills for Citizenship like "use their imagination to consider other people's experiences"
  (Ks3/3a) through learning directly about and with other people beyond the school.

How can we introduce outings in our school?

• Most schools already have a wide range of pupil outings in place, although these may not so far, have been
  seen as opportunities for learning Citizenship skills. It will be useful for Citizenship co-ordinators, other
  interested teachers and pupils to point these out specifically when promoting and evaluating the outings.
• In the same way, new proposals for outings that match closely with Citizenship criteria should be proposed,
  showing the benefits to be gained for developing skills of enquiry, communication, participation and
  responsible action.
• For further guidance on ways to get students involved in community projects read the QCA booklet Getting
  involved: extending opportunities for pupil participation (There is one for Key Stage 3 and 4) and QCA scheme
  of work KS4 - Unit 7 Taking part - planning a community event.

Voluntary groups

What are voluntary groups?

Voluntary groups are non-government organisations working for social change and improvement or providing a
much needed service. These can be local groups (e.g. a playgroup for younger children), national groups that raise
funds to provide services or influence government provisions for people with specific needs like those with
disabilities (e.g. Scope) and UK-based groups that support development projects in poorer countries of the world
or lobby for global change (e.g. Oxfam or Amnesty International).

What are the benefits of voluntary groups?

• Voluntary groups are not restricted by government policies and can often act as a critical voice to improve
  such policies.
• Voluntary groups usually welcome all kinds of support, including enquiries about school projects or active
  involvement of young people as volunteers. In this, they are powerful bodies for helping young people to
  develop their Citizenship skills and understanding.

How do voluntary groups contribute to Citizenship education?

• Working with groups has the following links to the National Curriculum:
  Developing skills of enquiry and communication -2a, 2b
  Developing skills of participation and responsible action - 3a, 3b, 3c
  Knowledge and understanding - 1f

How can we introduce working with voluntary groups in our school?